Balanced Bilingual: A person who can communicate effectively and equally well in two languages.

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BIOS): Those language skills which comprise cognitively undemand­ing or everyday aspects of communica­tion, such as social language. Research shows that most second language learn­ers become proficient in BICS in about 2 years.

Biliteracy: Literacy that has been developed well in two languages (see definition of Literacy).

Bilingual Education: The use of two languages for the purposes of academic instruction with an organized curriculum that includes, at a minimum: 0 contin­ued primary language (L I) development; 4 English (L2) acquisition; and 0 subject matter instruction through (LI) and (L2). Bilingual education programs assist limited-English-proficient (LEP) students in developing literacy both in English and the primary language to a level where they can succeed in an English-only classroom. Programs may also include native speakers of English.

Code Switching: The alternate use of two languages, or switching back and forth. This usually occurs between two bilinguals who speak the same language(s) and involves special social and communicative skills. This differs from the incorporation of the native language into the second language as when a person is trying to communicate beyond his or her level of competence in the second language. Also, it is not interference of the first language as was once believed by linguists.

Cognitive Academic Language Pro­ficiency (CALP): Proficiency in the use of language for difficult and abstract topics that have little or no concrete context. Language used in academic settings usually requires this type of proficiency. According to research, it takes 5 - 7 years for a second language learner to develop CALP.

Communicative-Based ESL: A second language instructional approach in which the goals, teaching methods, techniques, and assessments of student progress are all based on instructional objectives defined in terms of ability to communicate messages in the target language. In communicative-based ESL, the focus is on language function and use, not on language form. Examples of communicative-based ESL instructional approaches include Suggestopedia, Natu­ral Language, and Community Language Learning.

Communicative-Competence: The ability to communicate effectively and to vary communication styles appropriately in various contexts. This entails social and pragmatic competence.

Comprehensible Input: Language that is comprehensible to the listener. Input can be made comprehensible when simplified speech is used along with concrete referents. Krashen uses the term I + I (comprehensible input plus 1) to refer to language that is just slightly above one's level of functioning.

Concrete Referents: Anything that can be seen, heard, felt, or touched by the learner that clarifies comprehension.

Content-Based ESL: ESL taught in combination with academic subject matter in order to teach the kind of language and vocabulary necessary for the academic subjects.

Context Embedded: Language which is supplemented by contextual clues or visual stimuli that assist comprehension. E.g. pictures, gestures, realia, facial expressions.

Context-Reduced: Language which is not supplemented by contextual clues or visual stimuli, e.g., lectures, some types of textbooks, telephone conversations, etc.

Cooperative Learning: The structuring of learning activities so students work coop­eratively in groups. The structures must be designed to foster five basic elements - positive interdependence, individual account­ability, face-to-face interaction, collaborative skill development and group processing. Cooperative learning structures for second language learners optimize opportunities for meaningful interactions and language use.

Criterion Referenced Tests (CRT): Tests which measure an individual's per­formance against a specific standard or criterion; used to measure actual learning or diagnose instructional needs.

Cultural Bias: Favoring one cultural group through ethnocentric interpreta­tions, actions or references. In assess­ment, cultural bias occurs when success on a test depends upon understanding specific aspects of the dominant language and culture.

Culturally Diverse: Cultures that differ from the dominant culture of the country of residence or that differ from one another.

Culture: The way of life of a group of people who share a common historical experience as well as attitudes, values, traditions, and a language that identifies them as a specific group.

Culture Shock: Feelings of disorienta­tion often experienced in instances of contact with other cultures.

Deep vs Surface Culture: Deep culture refers to the non-tangible aspects of culture such as feelings, attitudes, and rules for interaction while surface culture refers to the visible aspects such as food, art, dress, and others.

Developmental Bilingual Program: A program in which students are taught
both English and their first language in order to foster continued development of the native language in addition to the learning of English. This is an additive bilingual language program.

Dialect: Forms of a language which differ in systematic ways and are spoken by particular regional or social groups.

Empowerment: The process of encouraging students, parents, and teach­ers to believe in their own capabilities and to assist them in turning that belief into action.

English as a Second Language (ESL): English instruction for the development of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills for non-English speakers.

Entry/Exit: Standards established to determine when a student should be placed in a bilingual or special language education program and when the same student is ready to leave the program for a regular monolingual English classroom.

Hawthorne Effects: Effects inadvert­ently produced on outcomes of a research study simply through subjects' perceptions that the experimental conditions mean they are receiving increased attention.

Holistic Approaches: Instructional ap­proaches that focus on an integrative whole rather than division of a task into discrete sub-skills. In language, this means a focus on speaking, listening, reading and writing in an integrative mode.

Home Language Survey: A docu­ment used to identify the language(s) spoken at home by each student. If the survey reveals that a student speaks a language other than English at home, language assessments must be conducted to determine the student's proficiency in English. School districts need to know the home language in order to complete the state language census and as the first step in identifying LEP students.

HyperCard: A computer graphics program that allows the use of graphic images and interactive video displays. It promotes language use among students by giving them opportunities to manipu­late images from a database and comment orally or in writing. It provides access to concrete references by using the technological capability of random access to databases of images.

Informal Assessment: The use of non-standardized assessment instruments or techniques such as analysis of work samples, observation, special projects, etc.

Integrated Learning Approach to Literacy: Learning literacy through a combination of strategies designed to utilize the four language skills concur­rently (i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing). The Whole Language approach is an integrated learning approach.

Interactive Writing: Responsive communication between two or more individuals in written form, such as letters, dialogue journals, or other. This technique allows the modeling of written language through meaningful communi­cation.

Interlanguage: The nature of the linguistic output of a non-native speaker who has yet to achieve native-like fluency.

L1: First or native language.

L2: Second or non-native language.

Language Dominance: The language in which a bilingual person is the most fluent. Dominance in one language over another can vary depending on the situation or context. It is not unusual to have one language dominant for certain situations and the other language dominant for others.

Language Experience Approach (LEA): Student-generated stories about real life experiences. The experiences may be structured by the teacher (e.g., field trips, science demonstrations, other) and the stories may be dictated or written by the students either as a group experi­ence, or individually and then shared with the class.

Language Functions: The use of language to accomplish particular com­munication goals. These include asking for permission, giving advice, making suggestions, flattering, boasting, punish­ing, warning, begging for forgiveness, convincing etc.

Language Influence: The influence of the first language on performance in a second language. Research has shown this to be a natural part of second language skill development.

Language Maintenance: The preser­vation of a native language when a second language is learned as opposed to displacement of the native language by the second language.

Language Minority Populations: Groups of people whose language back­ground differs from that of the majority population.

Language Minority Student: A student whose language background differs from that of the majority popula­tion. A language minority student is not necessarily a limited-English-proficient student.

Language Modeling: Technique used by teachers when they repeat a student's language using corrected language forms. This is done in a natural way without specifically pointing out errors. (Also refers to non-language tasks when the teacher demonstrates these as instruc­tions to students.)

Language Proficiency: An individual's level of accuracy and fluency of communication in a specific language as measured by his/her performance.

Lau v. Nichols (414 U.S. 563,566): The U.S. Supreme Court decision of 1974 in which it was determined that merely providing students who do not under­stand English with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum is not providing equal treatment since these students are effectively foreclosed from comprehensible curriculum and mean­ingful education. Consequently, it was found that the San Francisco Unified School District had violated Title VI of the Civil Rights Act by not providing programs adequate to meet the needs of non-English-dominant students.

Learning a language: Conscious learning of the rules of a language and monitoring one's own performance in accord with these rules. (Frequently contrasted with Acquisition.)

Limited-English-Proficient (LEP) Parents: Parents whose children have been identified as limited-English proficient and/or who are also limited in their proficiency in English.

Limited-English-Proficient (LEP) Student: A student whose primary language is other than English and who does not comprehend, speak, read, or write at a level necessary to receive instruction only in English with native English-speaking peers.

Linguistic Bias: The use of lexical items which are part of the language of the dominant group but which may not be understood by others, thereby fa­voring the dominant group.

Literacy: The ability to derive meaning and to communicate effectively through print. Kinds of literacy that have been described include:

1. Functional Literacy: Ability to read and write well enough to function in society, e.g. fill out forms.
2. Cultural Literacy: Literacy based on a foundation of shared knowl­edge and experience within a cul­ture.
3. Critical Literacy: Ability to assess the ideology of individual texts. This is the highest level of literacy. Literacy, categories of:
   1. Pre-Literate: Individuals who have not learned to read and write in any language.
   2. Literate: Individuals who can read and write in their native language at the fourth grade level or higher.
   3. Postliterate: Individuals who can read and write in their native lan­guage at a post-high-school level, and have a broad knowledge of subject matter and content.
   4. Non-alphabetic: Individuals who are literate in a language that does not use an alphabet with letter to sound correspondence, such as Chinese or Japanese.

Local Educational Agency (LEA): A board of education or some legal author­ity having administrative control over public education in a county or school district. (Note that the acronym is the same for Language Experience Approach.)

Maintenance Bilingual Program: A program that maintains native language skills while teaching English. This promotes additive bilingualism.

Method: A set of specific tasks or techniques based on theories and principles of a particular approach.

Monitor Hypothesis: The hypothesis that language learners (as opposed to acquirers) constantly monitor their language output in accord with the rules of the language as they have learned them. Such monitoring is hypothesized to reduce fluency due to the time and thought involved in such monitoring.

Monolingual: A person who has the ability to communicate in only one language.

Multicultural education: The infusion of varying cultural viewpoints, ideas, and perspectives into the curricu­lum and learning environment. It is designed to enhance and develop appreciation for the contributions of all ethnic groups to humankind's accumu­lated knowledge, ideas, skills and philosophy.

Native Language/Primary Language: The first language acquired by a person.

Natural Approach (NA): A topic­centered language program designed to develop basic communication skills in accord with the way children naturally acquire language. It follows the develop­mental stages of pre-production, early production, speech emergence, and intermediate fluency.

Natural Communication Task: A task that focuses the student's attention on the idea or opinion being expressed rather than the language forms used. A natural communication task may or may not be structured.

Natural Order Hypothesis: A hypothesis that students acquire (not learn) grammatical structures in a predict­able order.

Norm Referenced Tests (NRT): Tests which measure an individual's perfor­mance by comparing it to the perfor­mance of a pre-selected and pre-tested sample of individuals (i.e., a norm group).

Phonetics: The study of a language's sound system including sound-letter correspondence, intonation, stress, and rhythm.

Portfolio: A collection of information, work samples and products of or about an individual student. It is designed to reflect the student's progress and mastery of concepts or skills. An assessment portfolio must be carefully planned to meet the assessment criteria and goals.

Potentially English Proficient (PEP): An alternative term for LEP (limited­English-proficient). Although LEP is the term used in all legislation referring to such students, many educators object to its focus on limitations. Hence, efforts to develop new terms have resulted in more positive terms such as PEP.

Primary Language: The language first acquired by a student, In the Home Language Survey, this is defined as the language the student first learned, the language used by the student most frequently at home, the language spoken most frequently by the parents with the student, or the language most often spoken by the adults at home. (R-30 Language Census).

Process Writing: A method of teaching writing that focuses on the communicative processes involved in producing a written product rather than form (e.g., may include
invented spellings, symbolic writing or other). Student's writing products are developed over time through interactions with both teachers and peers. Six distinct stages result in a final product: pre-writing, drafting, responding, revising, editing, and publishing.

Proxemics: Study of space as it is used in and affects communication. Differ­ences between usual speaking distances maintained in different cultures falls within the realm of proxemics.

Psycholinguistics: An interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on how indi­viduals acquire and use language. It includes information from many branches of psychology, sociology and linguistics.

Realia: Concrete objects from the everyday world which are used during instruction in order to make language comprehensible.

Register: Speech that is socially appro­priate for a given situation. Different registers are used for different types of situations. For example, a register used at an informal party with friends differs from that used in a formal job interview.

Reliability: In assessment, refers to the extent to which a test shows consistency in its measurements, i.e., whether there is variation in scores over repeated testings.

Role Playing: Dramatization of real-life situations in which students assume roles.

Schema Theory: The idea that mean­ing is derived from the interaction between the reader's stored conceptualizations of prior knowledge and experience (schema), and the author's text. This theory proposes that meaning is not inherent in text. Second Language Acquisition/ Learning: The development of second language proficiency through either structured instruction or interaction with native speakers of that language.

Second Language Acquisition Theory: Consists of a set of related hypotheses to account for observed phe­nomena in second language acquisition. Those are: the acquisition vs learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the (comprehensible) input hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis and the natural order hypothesis.

Semantic Mapping: An integrated language teaching strategy that includes a variety of ways to make visual displays of information within categories related to a central topic. This strategy helps elicit students' previous knowledge and adds new information while demonstrating a relationship between concepts and terms that are being learned. Can be used as advance organizers or for lesson review.

Semantics: The study of word meanings.

Sheltered Academic Instruction: A mode of teaching regular content area courses (in English) in ways which are designed to make them comprehensible to students who are learning English as a second language. Techniques include sim­plified speech, contextualization, task-func­tion orientation, and interactional activi­ties.

Silent Period: A period of time during which students are adjusting to a new language and may refrain from attempts to produce the language. They are developing listening comprehension skills and sorting out such things as the sound system, vocabulary, and other. Not all students go through a silent period, but those who do should be allowed such a period and not be forced to produce oral language until they begin to feel comfort­able with their initial attempts. The length of this period varies with the individual.

Skills-Based Approach: Language is taught as a series of discrete sub-skills which can be assembled into a whole once they are learned.

Sociolinguistics: The study of how language is used by different societal groups and across various social situations. This includes the study of linguistic variation, linguistic change, and sociocultural factors that influence language use. Specially-designed English: English designed to make content comprehen­sible for English learning students. See Sheltered Academic Instruction.

Stages of Cultural Adjustment: The process of readjustment an individual must go through when entering a new culture for any length of time. This process is characterized by several stages. Student Oral Language Observa­tion Matrix /SOLOM): An instrument used to assess oral language proficiency over time.

Submersion: The practice of placing LEP students into monolingual English classrooms with no special support or assistance (sink or swim).

Subtractive Bilingualism: Loss or limited development of one's first language when learning a second language. The result limits a speaker's language repertoire when compared to additive bilingualism, which enriches that repertoire through the development of two languages.

Syntax: The study of sentence structures and word-order patterns.

Transference: The expression of con­cepts and use of skills learned during first language acquisition in the second lan­guage once the appropriate language labels have been acquired.

Transitional Bilingual Program: A program that provides content area instruction in a student's first language while simultaneously offering ESL instruction. The instruction of content material gradually shifts to the complete use of the second language as the student's proficiency increases.

Transmission Instruction: Teaching approach where the teacher is assumed to be the "knower" who is responsible for transmitting knowledge to the learner, usually through lectures and demonstra­tions.

BEMSC: Bilingual Education Multifunc­tional Support Center (established in past legislation but now extinct; current legis­lation provides for MRCs).

BESC: Bilingual Education Service Center (established in former legislation but now extinct; current legislation provides for MRCs)

CAL: Center for Applied Linguistics

CLEAR: Center for Language Education and Research (no longer funded).

DBE: Developmental Bilingual Education Program

EAC: Evaluation Assistance Center (funded under Title VII)

EFL: English as a Foreign Language. ESAA: Emergency School Assistance Act

ESEA: Elementary and Secondary Education Act

ESL: English as a Second Language

FEP: Fluent-English-Proficient

FLEP: Former-Limited-English-Proficient

1HE: Institution of Higher Education

LEA: Local Education Agency

LEP: Limited-English-Proficient

LES: Limited-English-Speaking

LESA: Limited-English-Speaking Ability

MRC: Multifunctional Resource Center (funded by Title VII)

NABE: National Association for Bilingual Education

NACCBE: National Advisory and Coordi­nating Council on Bilingual Education (formerly ACBE - National Advisory Council on Bilingual Education)

NCBE: National Clearinghouse for Bilin­gual Education (funded by Title VII)

NELB: Non-English-Language Back­ground

NEP: Non-English-Proficient

NES: Non-English Speaking

NODAC: National Origin Desegregation Assistance Center (formerly LAU Centers)

OBEMLA: Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs

PAC: Parent Advisory Council or Committee

PEP: Potentially English Proficient

SAIP: Special Alternative Instructional Program

SEA: State Education Agency

TBE: Transitional Bilingual Education Program

TESOL: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (National profes­sional association)

Bilingual-Bicultural Education Office. (1984). Bilingual cross cultural teacher aides: A resource guide. Sacramento, CA: California State Department of Education.

Bilingual Education Office. (1987). Guide for bilingual education advisory committee. Sacramento, CA: California State Department of Education.

Bilingual/ESL Committee. (1988). Work­ing curriculum guide for teaching English As A Second Language. Buffalo, NY: Buffalo Public Schools.

Department of Educational and Cultural Services. (1990). Book of solutions: Frequent questions on concepts, issues, and strategies for the education of language minority children. Augusta, ME: Maine Department of Educational and Cultural Services.

Dulay, H., Burt, M., & Krashen, S. (1982). Language two. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

InterAmerican Research Associates, Inc. (n.d.). Bilingual education information packet (Contract No. 300-85-0204). Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

Ovando, C. J. & Collier, V. P. (1985). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teach­ing in multicultural contexts. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
A. Glossary: Sections VII - X